The 14 Characteristics of Fascism
020. Is the USA Fascist, and why should Australians Care?
Fascism is a term that is often invoked but not always fully understood. Originating in early 20th-century Europe, fascism refers to a far-right, authoritarian ultranationalist political ideology. It emerged most famously in Mussolini’s Italy and Hitler’s Germany, characterized by totalitarianism, militarism, and the suppression of dissent. But fascism is not confined to a single historical moment—it is a set of ideas and tendencies that can reappear in different contexts.
To help identify fascist ideologies and movements, Umberto Eco, an Italian philosopher and novelist, outlined 14 characteristics of what he termed “Ur-Fascism” (or Eternal Fascism). His framework provides a lens to recognize the core features of fascism, even in its modern and evolving forms. Let’s explore these 14 characteristics in detail to understand how they define fascist ideologies and their impact on societies.
The question of whether America is fascist is a provocative one, yet it is increasingly relevant in light of global political trends. To explore this, we must consider the hallmarks of fascism as identified by Umberto Eco—such as populist nationalism, the glorification of violence, disdain for human rights, and the undermining of truth. While the United States may not fully align with historical examples like Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy, certain characteristics of contemporary American politics suggest a worrying drift toward authoritarian tendencies. This shift matters not only for Americans but for Australians as well, given the intertwined nature of our political, economic, and cultural ties.
Fascism, as a political ideology and movement, is characterised by authoritarianism, nationalism, and the suppression of opposition. Umberto Eco’s seminal essay “Ur-Fascism” identifies 14 key characteristics of fascist regimes, offering a framework to understand the mechanisms and strategies employed by these movements. This article explores each characteristic in detail, using examples from Nazi Germany, other historical periods, and contemporary examples from the United States.
1. Powerful, Populist Nationalism and Cult of Leadership
Fascism centres on an infallible leader who embodies the nation’s destiny, often using populism to unify the populace.
The elevation of an infallible leader creates a dangerous dynamic where dissent is silenced, and critical thinking is replaced by blind allegiance. For social changemakers, this undermines the possibility of inclusive and democratic participation, as the leader’s vision becomes synonymous with the nation’s identity. This type of nationalism excludes marginalised groups, erases diverse perspectives, and polarises societies, making it nearly impossible to create spaces for equitable change or dialogue.
Nazi Germany: Adolf Hitler’s portrayal as the “Führer” elevated him to a messianic figure, promising the restoration of Germany’s greatness.
Historical Example: Benito Mussolini in Italy propagated the image of himself as the “Duce,” claiming to embody Italian national pride and imperial ambitions.
USA Today: Certain political figures use rhetoric around “saving the nation” from perceived decline, fostering a personality cult with infallible authority and denial of any mistakes.
2. Political Power from Myth, Rage, and Lies
Fascist regimes thrive on propaganda, myths, and the rejection of empirical reality.
When political power is derived from myths, rage, and falsehoods, it corrodes public trust and distorts reality, making it difficult for changemakers to build movements based on evidence and reason. Propaganda can manipulate people’s emotions and redirect their anger toward scapegoats, undermining solidarity and collective action. This environment fosters suspicion, division, and an inability to agree on the basic truths needed to address systemic problems.
Nazi Germany: Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels promoted the myth of Aryan supremacy and Jewish conspiracy theories.
Historical Example: Stalin’s USSR, while communist rather than fascist, shared traits like fabricating political myths to sustain authoritarian rule, such as accusing Trotskyites of sabotage.
USA Today: The proliferation of election denial narratives and conspiracy theories challenges the legitimacy of democratic institutions.
3. Fixation on National Decline and Victimhood
Fascist regimes exploit narratives of humiliation to justify their rise.
Framing a nation as perpetually in decline creates a sense of fear and urgency, which fascists exploit to justify oppressive policies. For changemakers, this narrative poses a significant barrier, as it shifts public focus from systemic issues to imagined or exaggerated external threats. By weaponising victimhood, fascism fuels resentment and scapegoating, preventing constructive solutions to inequality, injustice, and environmental degradation.
Nazi Germany: The Treaty of Versailles was framed as a national humiliation, stoking resentment and calls for vengeance.
Historical Example: Post-WWI Italy under Mussolini portrayed Italy’s failure to secure promised territories as a betrayal.
USA Today: Rhetoric around America being “weakened” by immigration or globalisation often fuels nationalist sentiment.
4. Replacement Theory and Opposition to Harmony
Democratic ideals of equality are reframed as threats to the dominant group.
The promotion of replacement theory and the rejection of harmony undermines efforts to build inclusive societies. For social changemakers, such ideologies delegitimise diversity and sow mistrust among communities, eroding social cohesion. By framing equality and multiculturalism as threats, fascism pits groups against one another, dismantling the foundations of mutual understanding and collective progress.
Nazi Germany: The Nuremberg Laws institutionalised racial purity, restricting the rights of Jews and other minorities.
Historical Example: Apartheid South Africa created laws to maintain white dominance over Black populations.
USA Today: Replacement theory rhetoric targets immigrants, often casting them as threats to the cultural and political fabric.
5. Disdain for Human Rights
Fascism seeks to “purify” the nation by excluding or exterminating perceived outsiders.
Fascism’s contempt for human rights strips individuals of their dignity and legitimises violence against marginalised communities. For changemakers, this is a direct assault on efforts to protect and expand rights for all. It normalises discrimination and exclusion, making it harder to advocate for policies that prioritise equity and social justice, while creating environments of fear that suppress activism and resistance.
Nazi Germany: The Holocaust represents the ultimate disdain for human rights, with systematic genocide of Jews, Roma, and others.
Historical Example: Japanese imperialism during WWII involved atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre, framed as a cleansing of inferior groups.
USA Today: Policy proposals that aim to restrict rights based on race, religion, or immigration status mirror this disdain.
6. Scapegoating Enemies
Creating enemies unifies supporters and justifies violence or repression.
Scapegoating unifies people through hatred rather than hope, diverting attention from systemic problems and preventing meaningful change. For changemakers, the identification of “enemies” within society is a major obstacle to fostering collaboration and solidarity. It shifts blame onto vulnerable groups, absolving those in power of responsibility for addressing root causes of inequality and injustice.
Nazi Germany: Jews, communists, and other groups were scapegoated for Germany’s economic struggles and societal issues.
Historical Example: McCarthyism in the USA demonised alleged communists, leading to blacklisting and imprisonment.
USA Today: Political discourse often blames specific groups, such as immigrants or certain religious communities, for societal problems.
7. Supremacy of the Military
Militarism and glorification of violence are hallmarks of fascist states.
Fascist regimes glorify violence as a tool of control and redemption, creating a climate where fear and aggression dominate. This is particularly dangerous for changemakers advocating for peace, nonviolence, and systemic reform. Militarisation prioritises power and control over dialogue and empathy, shrinking civic spaces and making grassroots mobilisation risky, if not impossible.
Nazi Germany: The Wehrmacht and SS were integral to both domestic control and territorial expansion.
Historical Example: Franco’s Spain relied on military power to maintain authoritarian rule.
USA Today: Excessive military budgets and rhetoric glorifying armed intervention can echo fascist tendencies.
8. Rampant Sexism
Fascist regimes often reinforce patriarchal structures.
Fascism enforces rigid gender roles and suppresses the rights of women and gender-diverse individuals, perpetuating systemic oppression. For changemakers, this stifles movements for gender equity and justice, framing progressive efforts as threats to “traditional values.” The exclusion of women and minorities from public life also limits the diversity of voices necessary for meaningful social change.
Nazi Germany: Women were relegated to roles as mothers and homemakers, celebrated through policies like the “Cross of Honour of the German Mother.”
Historical Example: Under Mussolini, Italian women were encouraged to bear children for the state and excluded from public life.
USA Today: Contemporary debates around women’s reproductive rights and gender roles reflect ongoing struggles against institutional sexism.
9. Control of Mass Media
Fascist regimes suppress dissent by controlling media narratives.
When mass media is controlled or discredited, fascist regimes monopolise narratives and suppress dissenting views. For changemakers, this creates significant challenges, as the ability to share alternative perspectives, mobilise communities, and challenge oppressive systems relies on free and open communication. The erosion of truth fosters apathy and confusion, weakening collective action.
Nazi Germany: The Nazi Party monopolised the press, ensuring only state-approved messages were disseminated.
Historical Example: Pinochet’s Chile censored media and targeted dissenting journalists.
USA Today: Disinformation campaigns and allegations of media bias create an environment where truth is contested.
10. Obsession with National Security
Fostering fear of external and internal threats justifies authoritarianism.
Fostering paranoia about security and crime enables fascists to justify authoritarian measures and suppress opposition. For changemakers, this creates a hostile environment where activism is framed as subversive or dangerous. The focus on “enemies within” diverts attention from systemic issues like poverty, inequality, and environmental crises, which are critical to long-term societal well-being.
Nazi Germany: The Reichstag Fire was used to frame communists as an existential threat, justifying crackdowns.
Historical Example: The Red Scare in the USA fostered paranoia about communism infiltrating society.
USA Today: Policies focusing on “law and order” often exaggerate threats to national security, particularly from minority groups.
11. Religion and Government Intertwined
Fascism uses religion to legitimise its authority.
Fascism’s intertwining of religion and state weaponises faith to legitimise oppression and exclusion. This is dangerous for changemakers, as it undermines secular governance and pluralism, making it harder to advocate for policies that respect diverse beliefs. The use of religion as a political tool often silences dissent by framing opposition as immoral or heretical.
Nazi Germany: The regime co-opted Christian symbols and sought to create a “positive Christianity” aligned with Nazi ideology.
Historical Example: Franco’s Spain intertwined Catholicism with authoritarian rule.
USA Today: Political movements that invoke religious rhetoric to justify policy decisions align with this characteristic.
12. Protection of Corporate Power
Fascism prioritises corporate interests while suppressing labour movements.
Fascist regimes prioritise corporate interests over workers’ rights, creating economic systems that benefit the elite at the expense of the majority. For changemakers, this undermines efforts to build fair and sustainable economies. By dismantling unions and silencing worker advocacy, fascism prevents collective bargaining and amplifies income inequality, perpetuating cycles of poverty.
Nazi Germany: Industrialists like Krupp and Siemens collaborated with the regime, benefiting from forced labour.
Historical Example: Mussolini’s Italy dismantled unions and enforced corporate-state collaboration.
USA Today: Union-busting and corporate influence over policy illustrate parallels.
13. Disdain for Intellectuals
Fascist regimes marginalise dissenting voices in academia and the arts.
Fascism’s hostility toward intellectuals and the arts stifles creativity, critical thinking, and innovation, which are essential for transformative change. For changemakers, this presents a significant threat, as it marginalises voices that challenge the status quo and limits access to new ideas. The suppression of critical discourse also weakens the capacity to envision alternative futures.
Nazi Germany: Books by Jewish and leftist authors were burned as part of cultural cleansing.
Historical Example: The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia targeted intellectuals during its rule.
USA Today: Efforts to limit critical race theory and other academic disciplines reflect disdain for intellectual discourse.
14. Cronyism and Corruption
Loyalty to the leader supersedes competence.
The prioritisation of loyalty over competence creates inefficiency, corruption, and systemic rot. For changemakers, this undermines trust in institutions and makes it difficult to engage with government structures to enact change. Cronyism diverts resources away from public welfare, reinforcing inequality and reducing opportunities for collaborative problem-solving.
Nazi Germany: Positions of power were often awarded based on loyalty to Hitler rather than expertise.
Historical Example: Marcos’ Philippines was marked by nepotism and corruption.
USA Today: Instances of political appointments based on loyalty rather than qualifications suggest similar patterns.
These characteristics, while not exclusive to fascism, highlight the dangers of authoritarianism. Understanding these patterns helps identify and resist the resurgence of such ideologies in contemporary societies.
Why should we care?
As Australia’s closest ally, the United States significantly influences our foreign policy, economic decisions, and even cultural norms. A shift toward authoritarianism in America could lead to pressure on Australia to adopt similar policies, especially in areas like national security, immigration, and surveillance.
America’s drift away from democratic ideals destabilises the global balance of power. If the United States becomes less committed to human rights, multilateralism, and international law, this could embolden authoritarian regimes worldwide. For Australia, which relies on a stable global order to safeguard its interests, this would pose significant challenges.
Australia has not been immune to the rise of populist nationalism, as evidenced by movements opposing multiculturalism and championing exclusionary rhetoric. Observing America’s political trajectory offers a warning: unchecked polarisation, disinformation, and scapegoating can rapidly erode democratic norms. By recognising these risks early, Australians can work to protect their institutions and social fabric.
For social changemakers in Australia, America’s political climate provides a critical lesson in the dangers of complacency. The erosion of democratic norms often happens incrementally, through the normalisation of extreme rhetoric, the undermining of truth, and the centralisation of power. Recognising these patterns can help Australians safeguard their own democratic processes.